Iranians

Iranian speaking peoples formed three groups: East Iranian [Yuezhi and Kushan], North Iranian [Cimmerians, Scythians, Shaka, Parthians], and Central Iranian [Medes and Persians].

EAST IRANIAN
Yuezhi homeland [2000]. The Yuezhi lived in the grasslands of central Asia between the North Iranian Shaka and the Turkic Xiongnu. The Yuezhi spoke Tocharian, an East Iranian language in the Indo-European family.
Yuezhi trade with China [650]. The Yuezhi sold jade, cattle, and horses to the Chinese and bought silk. The Yuezhi supplied many of the horses used during China's Warring States period [481/221].
Yuezhi move West [176]. The Yuezhi split into two groups after the Xiongnu attacked [176]. The larger group moved west. A smaller group moved south. China attacked the Xiongnu [166]. A year later the Xiongnu attacked the Yuezhi who moved west again.
Yuezhi enter Bactria [140]. After the Xiongnu attacked the Yuezhi again [139] the Yuezhi moved west into the land of the North Iranian Shaka. The Shaka moved into Bactria [135]. The Yuezhi entered Bactria four years later, ending Bactria's history as a state. The Yuezhi defeated the Shaka [129] who split into two groups. One moved west into Parthia; the other, south into India.
Yuezhi expand [100 BCE]. The Yuezhi expanded south into northwest India [100 BCE].
Kushan kingdom [30]. The Kushan, a Yuezhi tribe, united the other Yuezhi tribes [30 CE] and formed the Kushan Kingdom. The Kushan used the Bactrian language and alphabet and became influenced by Greek culture.
Kushan expand [68]. The Kushan expanded into the Indus River Valley [68] and then across northern India into the Ganges River Valley.
• Shaka Calendar. A Kushan ruler [Kanishka] introduced a calendar [78] and set the first year of his rule as year 1. The government of India continues to use this calendar [the Shaka calendar] to date official proceedings.
• Mayahana Buddhism. The Kushan supported a new branch of Buddhism, Mayahana Buddhism [100]. The new sect taught that Buddha was divine and emphasized the role of lay people. The earlier Hinayana sect considered Buddha to be a wise teacher and emphasized the role of monks and monasteries. Kushan missionaries spread Mayahana Buddhism to China and Japan.
Kushan tax Silk Roads trade [139]. The Silk Roads trade routes crossed the Kushan kingdom. The Kushan collected taxes on goods crossing their kingdom and grew rich. The Kushan used gold and copper coins. The gold coins equaled the actual value of the goods. The copper coins served like today's money. They represented a symbolic value greater than the coin's actual worth.
Kushan decline [220]. Persia took control of the Indus Valley region [224/240]. Kushan cities declined. Large landowners gained power and broke away [270].
End Kushan [370]. The Kushan kingdom ended in a military defeat [370, Kidarites].

NORTH IRANIAN
Central Asian Homeland [3000]. The North Iranians lived in Central Asia and tended goats and cattle. They spoke an Indo-European language. They moved their herds and their portable tent homes back and forth between summer and winter grazing lands. The North Iranians worshipped gods of nature including a father god [Xalmoxis].
Andronovo culture [2300]. Some North Iranians moved northeast into the region of the Aral Sea [Androvonovo culture].
• Spoke-wheel chariots. Chariots had two wheels with eight spokes instead of a solid rim making them lighter and faster [2000, Andronovo]. Earlier carts usually had four wheels.
Cimmerians control Ukraine [900]. The North Iranian speakers lived along a band of grasslands which stretched from Mongolia to Europe. The Cimmerians moved west toward Europe and controlled the Ukraine region for about 200 years [900/700].
Scythians displace Cimmerians [700]. The Scythians, the second group of North Iranians to move west, drove the Cimmerians out of the Ukraine. The Cimmerians traveled south and destroyed the kingdoms of the Urartu and the Phrygians [690]. They attacked Assyria [679] and Lydia [652]. The Lydians defeated the Cimmerians [626], who moved to a location near 'Armenia'.
Shaka stop Persians [626]. The Shaka, the third group of North Iranians to move west, settled in present-day Kazakhstan. Persia tried to expand into Shaka territory, but turned back after the Shaka killed the leader of the Persian army [530].
Scythians escape Persians [515]. Persia wanted to weaken the Scythians before attacking Greece. The Persian army moved north into Scythian territory [513]. The Scythians retreated and burned everything behind them. Unable to feed their army, the Persians returned home without success.
Sarmatians replace Scythians [490]. The Sarmatians emerged as successors of the Scythians. Sarmation women had considerable freedom and responsibility.
Parthia kingdom [250]. The Seleucids became interested in Syria and ignored their eastern lands. Bactria declared itself independent [250]. Two years later North Iranians formed the kingdom of Parthia [248, under Arasces]. The Parthians were accomplished horsemen who tended herds of animals and used the bow and arrow as their primary weapon. Parthian women did not appear in public.
Parthia expands [190]. The Parthians took western part of Bactria [190]. As a result some Bactrians moved to northwest India and formed a second Bactrian kingdom [170/130].
Parthia takes Persia [145]. Parthia expanded south [145, under Mithridates I] and ruled Persia for 350 years [145 BCE/212 CE]. The Parthians, outsiders, kept their power by forming alliances with local leaders.
Parthia attacked [135]. A chain reaction of westward migrations began after China defeated the Turkic-speaking Xiongnu [166]. The East Iranian Yuezhi pushed the North Iranian Shaka west. The Shaka entered Bactria [135] and the Yuezhi followed four years later [131]. When the Yuezhi arrived, the Shaka split into two groups. One moved to Parthia [129], the other entered northwest India [115].
Shaka enter India [80 BCE]. The Yuezhi remained in Bactria for about 50 years and then expanded into northwest India [80 BCE]. Again the Shaka moved away from the Yuezhi. The Shaka formed a kingdom on India's west coast. They remained for 400 years [70 BCE/380 CE].
Parthia end [227]. A native Persian rebelled against the Parthians. His Sassanid dynasty ruled Persia for 400 years [228/628].
Iranians forced into Hun army [370]. The Mongol Xianbei forced the Turkic Xiongnu out of their Asian homeland [370]. The Xiongnu moved west across North Iranian territory and forced many North Iranian men to join their army. After the Xiongnu arrived in Europe, they became known as the 'Huns'.

CENTRAL IRANIAN
Settlers from Central Asia [1200]. The Medes and the Persians came from Central Asia. The Medes arrived first [1200]. The Persians followed and settled south of the Medes. Both spoke Indo-European West Iranian languages.
• Magi. The magi were priests who served the gods worshipped in Media and Persia.
• Magic. The word 'magic' comes from the religious practices of the magi.
• Qanats. Underground water tunnels carried water from springs and other sources to cities and farms [800]. The tunnels sloped downward so that gravity moved the water. Vertical tunnels provided access for workers to dig the underground tunnel.
Under Assyria [935]. Assyria controls Medes and Persians. Assyria expanded and gained control over both the Medes and Persians.
Media strong [626]. A power struggle after a king's death weakened Assyria. Media and Babylon joined together and defeated Assyria, ending its history [609]. Media expanded into Armenia [590] and Asia Minor [585].
• Zoroaster. The religious leader, Zoroaster [630/553, Zarathustra], denounced polytheism. He taught that the god of the good [Ahura Mazda] and his angels were at war with the evil spirit [Ahriman] and his devils. Zoroaster promised that good people would rise to eternal life on a judgment day at the end of the world. He stopped sacrifices of animals in religious rituals and used fire ceremonies instead. Many magi priests adopted Zoroastrianism.
• Avesta. Zoroaster wrote part of the Avesta [570], the Zoroastrian book of religion. Other parts were written after Zoroaster died.

ACHAEMENID PERSIA
Achaemenids form kingdom [559]. Persia rebelled and conquered Media [558]. Persia took Lydia [546] and Babylon [539] and then expanded eastward toward India. Persia's ruling family, the Achaemenids, remained in power for more than 200 years [559/331].
Achaemenids take Egypt, Armenia [520]. Persia's rulers divided the country into provinces [satrapies] and required each province to pay taxes to support the army and construction projects. Persia took Egypt [525/404] and Armenia [519/311].
• Red Sea Canal. Persia helped the Egyptians complete a canal they had started 100 years earlier [601]. The canal linked the Nile River to the Red Sea and made it easier to trade with ports along the Indian Ocean.
• Postal System. The Persians built a road [Royal Road] from Sardis to Susa, 1/16 of the way around the earth [500]. Riders on horseback carried messages from one outpost to the next. A Greek historian [Herodotus] praised the postal riders: 'Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night stays these couriers.' The United States Postal Service uses this as its motto.
Achaemenids defeat Athens [499]. Greek cities in Asia Minor [499] and the city of Byzantium [498] broke away from Persia. Athens sent ships to support the rebellion. Persia defeated Athens' navy [494, Lade] and demanded that Athens and other Greek cities surrender. Sparta and Athens refused. Persia attacked Athens, but was defeated [490, Marathon].
Achaemenids weak [480]. The Persian army returned to Greece and burned Athens [480]. Shortly afterward, the Greeks won battles at sea and on land and the Persians returned home. Persia's failure to conquer Greece hurt morale and contributed to a political decline. Persia and the Greeks fought repeatedly over Asia Minor. Egypt broke away [404].
• Ice Pits. The Persians built ice pits [yakhchal] that enabled them to store ice through the summer. They consisted of a large, deep chamber lined with thick insulating walls that protected the ice and a tall above ground tower that provided a flow of cool air. Many were located above underground water tunnels [qanats] that offered another source of cooling air.
Macedon takes Persia [343]. After Persia regained Egypt [343], Alexander the Great of Macedon freed Egypt [333], conquered Persia [331, Gaugemela], and continued eastward, taking Bactria [327] and northwest India [325].
• Hellenism. Alexander introduced Greek art and culture to the nations he conquered [Hellenism]. He also adopted the customs and clothing of these lands.

SELEUCID SYRIA
Seleucids take Persia [323]. After Alexander died, his generals divided the kingdom [323]. Seleucus took Persia and Armenia, but Armenia quickly broke away [317].
Seleucids take Syria [305]. Seleucus gave land in northwest India to India's king [Chandragupta] in return for war elephants [305]. Seleucus used the elephants to take Syria from another of Alexander's successors [301].
Seleucids lose Bactria [278]. Egypt expanded into Syria [278], starting 80 years of war with the Seleucids. The Seleucid's focused on their wars against Egypt and neglected their eastern lands. Bactria broke away [250].
Seleucids lose Parthia [248]. North Iranians formed Parthia near Persia's northern border [248, led by Arsaces].
Seleucids take Armenia [211]. The Seleucids took Armenia [211] and Palestine [198] and supported Macedon when Rome attacked [196]. Rome defeated the Seleucids [190, Magnesia] and forced them to give up Asia Minor and Armenia.
Seleucids lose Jerusalem [180]. The Seleucids forced Hebrews to make sacrifices to idols which was forbidden their religion. Jerusalem rebelled [164].
Seleucids lose Persia [141]. Parthia took Babylon [141] and Media [141]. Jerusalem gained independence [141/64]. Parthia expanded into central [139] and eastern [127] Persia. Only Syria remained under Seleucid control.
Seleucids divide Syria [123]. Rival Seleucid leaders struggled for power split Syria into two parts [111].
Seleucids lose Syria [95]. Parthia attacked Syria [93, 88], but did not take control. Armenia, the strongest power in region, seized Syria [83].
Seleucids end [69]. Rome defeated Armenia [69] and restored the Seleucids to power in Syria [68]. Four years later [64], Rome took Syria because the Seleucid leaders continued to fight each other.

PARTHIA
Parthia defeats Romans [53]. Two Roman generals tried to become heroes by extending Rome's control into Parthia. Both failed [53, Crassus and 36, Mark Antony].
• Parting Shot. Parthian horsemen rode toward the Roman troops launching arrows and suddenly turned away. They shot again as they retreated [53, Carrhae]. This last arrow became known as the 'Parthian shot' and has entered our language as a 'parting shot', a hostile remark made while leaving.
Parthia rules Armenia [36 BCE]. Rome and Parthia agreed [63 CE, Rhandeia] that the brother of the Parthian king would rule Armenia.
Parthia weak [77]. Succession problems weakened Parthia. Several individuals fought to be king>.
Parthia attacked by Rome [114]. Rome took Armenia [114] and Mesopotamia [115] because of a dispute over who should be the ruler of Armenia. These wars were so expensive that Rome abandoned its new territories after only three years [117].
Parthia takes Syria [155]. Parthia took part of Syria from Rome [155]. Rome attacked and took Armenia [166] and Syria [166]. Roman soldiers brought home a plague that spread across the Roman Empire and may have killed one of every four people.

SASSANID PERSIA
Sassanids overthrow Parthians [212]. A Persian [Ardashir] rebelled, killed the Parthian ruler in battle [227, Artabanus], and started the Sassanid dynasty. They established a strong central government, made Zoroastrianism the state religion, and ruled for 400 years [227/651].
Sassanids take Armenia [232]. Persia took Armenia [232], attacked the Kushan [240], and fought with Rome over Syria [241/244 and 256/260]. After Persia imposed the Zoroastrian religion Armenia rebelled [284] and enjoyed a short period of independence and then Persia regained control [296].
Sassanids lose Armenia [297]. One year after Persia took Armenia, Rome helped Armenia regain its freedom [297].
Sassanids defeat Romans [359]. The Roman emperors at Milan and Constantinople joined forces and attacked Persia [359]. Both emperors died in battle. Persia took Armenia [371] and then divided it with Rome [387].
Sassanids fight Turks [443]. Turkic-speaking Epthalites ["White Huns'] attacked Eastern Persia [443] and defeated the Persian army. This weakened Persia enough that Armenia was able to break away [451].
Sassanids fight Byzantium [513]. After Byzantium and Persia had been at war for several years, the Byzantine emperor [Justinian] paid gold to end the war [532] because he wanted to use his troops elsewhere. A new war broke out [540] and resulted in another treaty [562].
Sassanids helped by Byzantium [591]. Byzantium helped the Persian ruler put down a rebellion. As a reward Persia gave part of Armenia to Byzantium [591].
Sassanids fight Byzantium [602]. After Persia defeated the Byzantines a Byzantine governor in North Africa rebelled and helped his son [Heraclius] become emperor [610]. Persia took Asia Minor [611/617] and Egypt [616].
Sassanids fail to take Byzantium [626]. The Persians and Avars planned a joint attack on Byzantium, but the attack failed because the Byzantines were able to keep the two armies from joining forces [626].
Sassanids end [633]. The failure to take Byzantium led to discontent and struggles for power in Persia. the Semitic Arabs took all of Persia, ending Persia's history as a state. In some areas the underground water tunnels [qanats] and other irrigation systems fell into disrepair and the population declined.
Copyright © 2002-2010 Francis E Lodge
All Rights Reserved • atlasofworldhistory.com