Rome

Rome founded [753]. Two villages, one Latin speaking and the other Sabine [Oscan] speaking, joined to form a single community [753]. A Latin ruled for one year and a Sabine ruled during the following year.
• Romulus and Remus. According to legend Romulus and Remus were twin sons of the god Mars. Their parents abandoned them, a wolf raised them, and they founded the city of Rome.
Etruscan kings [616]. The Romans selected an Etruscan as king. During 100 years of Etruscan leadership, the Romans built a bridge across the Tiber River, a temple to Jupiter, and the city's public square, the Roman forum.
Republic [509]. After the son of Rome's Etruscan king assaulted a Roman woman [Lucretia], the Romans expelled the king. They wrote a constitution and formed a republic, the form of government where citizens elect representatives who enact laws. Only landowners voted. Their representatives met as the Senate.
Class Struggles [494]. The landowners grew richer, but Rome's laborers and farmers remained poor. When the workers [plebians] complained that they had no voice in the government, the landowners gave them the right to ask for changes in laws by sending petitions [plebiscites] to the Senate. Not satisfied, the workers formed an army [494]. The landowners avoided a civil war by allowing the workers to elect representatives who met as the Assembly [493]. The workers remained unhappy. The Senate tried to end the workers' discontent by enacting civil rights laws [450, Laws of the Twelve Tables].
Celts burn Rome [390]. Celts burned Rome [390]. The Romans rebuilt the city and surrounded it with a wall [378, Servian Wall].
Treaty with Carthage [348]. Rome signed a treaty with Carthage [348]. Rome agreed not to enter most Carthaginian ports. Carthage agreed not to attack Roman cities.
Capua joins Rome [343]. The city of Capua signed a treaty with Rome [343]. Samnites, who lived between Rome and Capua, felt threatened and attacked. They failed to stop Rome and Capua from uniting [343/341, First Samnite War]. Nearby cities, afraid of Rome's growing power, broke agreements with Rome. The Romans attacked and claimed the cities as Roman possessions [Latin War, 340/337]. Rome gave their citizens privileges [Latin Rights], but not the right to vote.
Takes Central Italy [328]. Rome occupied a city near the Samnites [Fregellae], provoking wars that lasted 30 years [328/304 and 298/290, Samnite Wars]. Rome defeated the Samnites and took central Italy.
Takes South Italy [282]. Rome broke a treaty with Tarentum, a Greek colony in southern Italy, by sending a fleet into the city's harbor. Tarentum attacked the Romans, but lost. Rome took control of southern Italy.
• Pyrrhic Victory. A Greek king [Pyrrhus of Epirus] helped Tarentum defeat the Roman army in one battle [279, Ausculum], but the Greek king's army suffered great losses. He complained, 'With another victory like this I shall lose the war.' We still call costly situations, 'Pyrrhic victories'.
Takes Islands [264]. A city in Sicily [Messina] asked Rome to remove Carthaginians from the island. Carthage had a powerful navy and three times as many citizens as Rome. The Romans built a fleet of ships, defeated Carthage's navy [241], and took control of large Mediterranean islands [241, Sicily; 238, Sardinia; 227, Corsica].
Takes Spain [216]. A Carthaginian army [led by Hannibal] marched from Spain to Italy and defeated a Roman army [216, Cannae]. Southern Italy defected to Carthage. The Romans avoided fighting the strong Carthaginian army in Italy. Instead, the Romans attacked Spain [206, 205] and then Carthage [202, Zama]. Rome won, took Spain, and demanded that Carthage agree not make war without Rome's permission [Second Punic War, 218/201]. The Romans recovered southern Italy and confiscated the lands of southerners who had supported Carthage.
• Cement. The Romans were the first to use cement [about 200] which enabled them to build larger and stronger structures. They made cement by mixing volcanic ash, lime, stones, and water.
Takes Macedon [196]. Cities in Greece asked Rome to protect them from Macedon. Rome defeated Macedon [196] and declared the Greek cities independent. Rome attacked the Seleucids because they had helped Macedon [190, Magnesia]. Rome defeated Macedon again [168, Pydna] and divided it into four regions. Macedon rebelled [149] and Rome annexed it as a Roman province [148].
• New Year's Day. The Romans wanted to install a new government early to put down an uprising [153]. They changed the first day of the year from March 1 to January 1.
Takes North Africa [149]. After Numidia, which shared a border with Carthage, attacked Carthage repeatedly, Carthage attacked Numidia [150]. This violated an agreement between Carthage and Rome. The Romans surrounded Carthage for three years, burned the city, sold many of its citizens as slaves, and took control of the region near Carthage [Third Punic War, 149/146].
Takes Greece [146]. Rome responded to an uprising in Greece by destroying the city of Corinth [146] and incorporating Greece as a Roman province.
Land reforms fail [146]. Many Romans lost their jobs because landowners purchased slaves. Some Roman leaders in the Assembly wanted to help the poor by taking land from large estates and giving it to needy farmers. Two land reform efforts failed and supporters were killed [133, 121, Gracchi brothers].
• Overhead Aqueduct. Early aqueducts carried water along the ground. Rome's first overhead aqueduct [144, Aqua Marcia] used arches to carry water high above ground and to deliver it to hilly sections of the city.
Rome adds Asia Minor [133]. The king of Pergamum bequeathed his kingdom to Rome [133]. Rome adopted Asia Minor as province [133].
Reorganize army [113]. West Germanic and Celt warriors defeated a Roman army [113]. Six years later [107] rebels overthrew the king of Numidia. Rome declared war, but the senate refused to pay for troops. An army commander [Marius] recruited his own troops, the first Roman soldiers who were not landowners. He took Numidia [105], returned a hero. When West Germanic and Celt warriors defeated the Romans a second time [105], the commander who won in Numidia reorganized the Roman army into smaller, faster units and defeated the West Germans and Celts [102 and 101].
Civil War [100]. The senate refused to reduce the price of food or to help the poor own land. Cities in Italy seceded and formed a new republic, 'Italia' [91/88, War of the Allies]. Rome offered citizenship to cities that remained its allies. This offer helped to end the rebellion.
Dictator [84]. Rebels took power in Rome while the Roman army was in Asia Minor. The army returned and defeated the rebels [82, Colline Gate]. The Romans decided that they needed a strong leader for times of rebellion and war. They created a new position, dictator, and gave the dictator special power and authority. The first dictator [Sulla, the general who defeated the rebels] helped the landowners increase their wealth. Slaves rebelled and fought for more than a year [73/71, under Spartacus].
Triumvirate [66]. A general [Crassus] motivated his soldiers by promising to pay them with land. They won victories in Armenia [66], Syria [65], and Jerusalem [64], but the Senate refused to give the soldiers land. The general formed a secret agreement with two other leaders to support each other. One of the three, Julius Caesar, won victories in France [58], returned as a hero, and accepted the title 'dictator'. He weakened the senate by enlarging it to 900 members.
• Leap Year [46]. The 355-day Roman year had become out of sync with the seasons. Winter was occurring when it should have been autumn. Julius Caesar extended the year 46 BCE to 445 days and changed subsequent years to 365 days. He added an extra day every fourth year, but not February 29th. The Romans celebrated February 23, the day before a holiday, twice in a leap year.
Second Triumvirate [44]. Senators, afraid that Julius Caesar would become king, had him killed [44]. Before his death Caesar had named Octavian, an 18 year old relative, as his successor. Octavian was too weak to rule and joined two other leaders in a second triumvirate. One of the three attacked Parthia [36, Mark Antony], was defeated, and asked Egypt's ruler [Cleopatra] for help. Octavian considered this treason and annexed Egypt [31, Actium].
Augustus Caesar [31]. Octavian was given the title, Augustus, which means 'revered one' [27]. He improved Rome's economy, reorganized the army, established more secure borders, reduced corruption by paying salaries to tax collectors, established police and fire departments, and ruled for 44 years.
• Pax Romana. Augustus closed the doors of the temple of the god Janus [29]. The doors of this temple were opened during wartime and closed during peacetime. The Mediterranean region, ruled for the first time by a single state, experienced 200 years of peace [Pax Romana].
• Emperor. The Senate gave Augustus [27] new powers and the title, 'emperor', which means 'commander-in-chief'. Augustus established Rome's first permanent army.
• Aeneid. The epic poem, the Aeneid [19], tells the story of Rome. Aeneas, the epic's hero, escaped from the battle of Troy, traveled to Italy, and established the town that became the parent city of Rome.
Loss to East Germans [9 CE]. Rome was extending its northern border when the East Germanic Marcomanni [Bavarians] defeated the Roman army [9 CE]. Rome pulled its border back to the Rhine River and stopped expanding northward.
Family Emperors [14]. The four emperors who succeeded Augustus were his relatives. All four were weak emperors with few successes. Jews, angry that Romans ruled their land, seized control of Jerusalem [66].
Flavian Emperors [69]. A political rebellion in Spain [68] led to a power struggle with four emperors holding power in one year [69]. The Romans ended the Jewish rebellion by destroying Jerusalem [70]. Some Jews continued to fight the Romans for several years [74, Masada].
• Vesuvius volcano. The volcano, Mount Vesuvius, erupted [79] and buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under ash.
• Colosseum. The Colosseum was completed at Rome [80]. Attractions at this stadium included chariot races and fights to the death between gladiators, between animals, and between men and animals.
• Arch of Titus. The Arch of Titus erected at Rome [81] celebrates the Roman victory at Jerusalem.
Adopted Emperors [96]. An emperor was assassinated before naming a successor. The Senate appointed one and encouraged him to train a successor. The next emperors, 'the five good emperors', each trained a talented candidate. Rome added Dacia [107].
Takes Armenia [114]. Rome and Parthia argued over who should rule Armenia. Rome took Armenia and Parthian lands in Mesopotamia. The war was so expensive that three years later Rome abandoned the land it had won. Rome stopped adding new territory. As a result the number of new slaves declined and the prices of goods increased.
Rome expels Jews [135]. Jews rebelled [132/135] because the Romans built a temple to their god, Jupiter, in Jerusalem. The Romans forced many Jews to leave Jerusalem [Jewish diaspora].
Defeats Parthia [155]. After Iranian Parthia took part of Syria from Rome [155], Rome attacked Parthia and took Armenia and Syria [162/166]. The Roman soldiers carried back a plague that caused widespread deaths [166/167]. The economy suffered. Rome's leaders reduced the amount of silver used in coins [170] causing higher prices [inflation] that hurt the economy even more.
Military emperors [193]. An emperor's personal guards [Praetorian Guards] murdered him because he reduced their pay. Military leaders fought each other to become emperor and six emperors ruled in one year [193]. Subsequent emperors needed the support of the military and increased taxes to pay soldiers and expand the army. These emperors built expensive monuments and tried to pay for them by reducing the amount of silver in coins. This led to higher prices and economic decline.
Persia attacks [230]. Six years after taking power from the North Iranian Parthians, the South Iranian Persians [Seleucids] invaded Syria and Mesopotamia [230]. A Roman emperor led a counterattack, but was murdered by his own soldiers because he spent money which was for their salary [235]. In the next 50 years 22 emperors ruled [barracks emperors]. Only one died a natural death. Prices and taxes were high. Another plague [252] weakened Rome's economy.
• Millennium. Romans celebrated this year as the 1000th year since their city was founded [753 BCE]. Many events were held in the Colosseum.
Loses half its land [260]. Persia kidnapped the Roman emperor during treaty negotiations [260, Valerian] and held him until he died. Rome lost nearly half of its territory within seven years. In the west France, Spain, and Britain broke away [260, Gallic Empire]. In the east Syria, Egypt, and part of Asia Minor broke away [260, Palmyra]. The Germanic Alemanni took land near present-day Switzerland [263].
Recovers lost land [270]. Rome withdrew from Dacia, relocated troops, and recovered most of the land it had lost with victories in Syria [272, Palmyra] and France [273, Chalons].
Regional emperors [284]. Army officers murdered seven emperors in ten years. Stability returned when a strong leader [Diocletian] ruled for 22 years. He weakened other leaders by dividing provinces to make them smaller. He also enacted laws which forbid military leaders from holding civil power. He appointed a co-emperor [286] and then two regional emperors [293]. None of the four used Rome as a capital city. Rome fought another war with Persia over Armenia [296] and needed new taxes to pay for Rome's army. The emperor froze prices. A black market developed and the price freeze failed.
• Religion of Mithras. The emperor encouraged the worship of Mithras [303, Diocletian], a Zoroastrian religion. Roman soldiers fighting in Persia had brought the religion to Rome 200 years earlier. In both Mithraism and Christianity the founder was born to a virgin and ascended into heaven. Followers of Mithras use the blood of cattle and birds to purify themselves. Christians who do not sacrifice animals.
Constantinople [306]. Constantine, the son of one of the four regional emperors, succeeded his father as ruler of Britain and Gaul [306]. He defeated his rivals [312, Milvian Bridge; 323, Adrianople] and ruled alone. Constantine permitted members of all religions to worship freely [313, Edict of Milan]. Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium [330]. He called the city 'New Rome', but it became known as Constantinople.
• Christmas. Early Christians did not celebrate the day of Christ's birth. Instead, they honored the day three wise men [magi] visited the infant and brought him gifts [Epiphany]. About the year 336 Roman Christians began to celebrate December 25th as Christmas, the birthday of Christ.
Empire divided [337]. Constantine left the empire to his three sons [337]. They divided it and fought with each other. The emperors from Milan and Constantinople joined forces against Persia and both died in battle [359]. Persia took Armenia [371].
Goths admitted [375]. The Turkic Huns, who had left their Central Asian homeland, attacked the Germanic Ostrogoths in southern Russia [376]. Rome helped the Visigoths escape from the Huns by allowing the Visigoths to enter Roman territory. The Visigoths promised to help defend Rome's border and expected food and supplies. When they didn't receive aid, they rebelled and killed an emperor who tried to drive them away [378, Adrianople].
United for the last time [379]. The Roman army murdered thousands of rioters [390, Thessalonica] and the pope ordered the emperor [Theodosius] to do public penance. The emperor performed the penance [390, Milan]. This was the first time that a Roman emperor submitted to a religious authority. After the emperor at Rome died leaders appointed a successor without consulting the emperor at Constantinople. Angry, he sent his army to Italy, removed the 'pretender', and became the last emperor to rule the entire empire. He died four months later and his two sons divided the empire [395, East Rome and West Rome].
Raids and attacks [395]. Visigoths attacked the Balkans [395] and Italy [395] where the Roman army defeated them [402]. The western emperor moved his government from Rome to Ravenna because it was stronger and safer [402]. Vandals and other East Germans crossed the frozen Rhine River [406] and attacked cities and farms in France and Spain. Visigoths threatened the city of Rome and forced its citizens to pay a ransom of gold and silver [408].
Visigoth homeland [410]. The emperor at Ravenna refused to give the Visigoths land in the Balkans. The Visigoths asked the Romans to help depose the emperor. When the Romans refused, the Visigoths sacked Rome [410]. To stop the Vandal raids, the emperor recalled his troops in England and moved them closer to Ravenna [410]. He asked the Visigoths to help stop Vandal raids and rewarded their success by giving them land in France [419, Toulouse]. The Vandals moved to Spain and then North Africa [428]. They took control of a kingdom on Africa's northern coastline, seized a fleet of ships, and used them for piracy.
Huns attack [430]. The Huns forced the emperor at Constantinople to pay a yearly tribute in return for peace [430]. When a new emperor stopped paying the tribute [450], the Huns attacked Italy and France. A large army of Romans and Visigoths opposed them and they withdrew [451, Cataulanian Fields]. A year later they threatened Rome, but did not attack it, after the Pope met the Hun leader outside the city and may have paid a ransom. Vandals sailed from North Africa and sacked Rome [455].
Ostrogoth kingdom [455]. An army leader at Ravenna [Orestes] named his son emperor. A military officer [Odoacer] forced the child ruler to abdicate and named himself king. The emperor at Constantinople asked the Ostrogoths to expel the rebel king and gave them one third of Italy as a reward [488].
Franks expand [507]. The Roman Christian Franks attacked the Arian Christian Visigoths [507]. The Visigoths abandoned their kingdom in France and formed a new kingdom in Spain.
Byzantium strong [527]. Justinian, emperor at Constantinople, paid gold to Persia to end a war and then used his troops to rebuild the Roman Empire. He recovered North Africa from the Vandals [532], Italy from the Ostrogoths [552], and part of Spain [554]. The leaders at Rome no longer played a powerful role. The West German Franks and Byzantium assumed the leading roles as successors to Rome.

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