Regional Studies ● atlasofworldhistory.com

· China did not have a continuous government. Different groups held power at various times.

· Administrative procedures [bureaucracy] helped organize services for a large population.

· Groups that conquered areas within China usually adopted China's language and customs [assimilation].

Xia Dynasty [2205]. Legends name the Xia as China's first ruling family. Archaeologists have not found evidence to verify the legends.

Yin [1766]. The Yin [Shang] ruled for 650 years [1766/1122]. They defended their kingdom from Turkic and Mongol raids and built walls to protect their cities. The Yin worshipped the god of harvests and military victories [Ti] and honored the wind, rivers, sun, moon, earth and clouds.

Ancestor Worship. Sacrifices and ancestor worship were important elements of Shang religion. Priests sacrificed food, animals, and war captives to deceased kings and family members because they wanted their ancestors to ask the gods for favors [1700].

Oracle Bones. Priests used the shoulder bones of cattle and the shells of turtles to get advice from ancestors. The priest asked a question, heated the bone or shell until it cracked, studied the cracks, and wrote the question and the answer on the bone or shell. These bones and shells show that Chinese writing had more than 2000 characters at this time [1400].

Silk Cloth. Workers produced silk by submerging silkworm cocoons in water, unwinding the silk thread, and weaving it into cloth [1400]. The method of making silk was kept secret. Europeans did not learn that silk was produced by caterpillars until after 500 CE. Silkworm eggs were smuggled into Europe about 552 CE.

Bronze Casting. Intricate bronze religious items, kitchen utensils, and weapons were made by making molds, casting pieces separately, and joining the pieces together [1400, piece mold process].

Western Zhou [1122]. The Zhou, who lived west of the Yin, destroyed the Yin capital and formed a new government.

Mandate of Heaven. The Zhou wanted to be recognized as legitimate successors of the Yin kings [1122]. They claimed that the Yin government had failed and said, 'If kings fail, the gods bless new leaders.' This principle, the Mandate of Heaven, requires rulers to be responsible and is repeated many times during China's history.

Eastern Zhou [770]. After a Zhou king took a mistress, the queen's father had the king killed. The Zhou moved their capital east and appointed friends as local rulers. The local leaders became more powerful than the king. Regional wars began.

Spring and Fall Annals. The government published reports twice each year [722/481, Spring and Fall Annals]. Today, they serve as a history for this period. Publishing stopped because wars weakened the government.

Year Names. A 12 year cycle of year names was based on the motion of the planet Jupiter [650].

Cast Iron. Iron products were made using molds [650, cast iron]. Elsewhere, iron products were made by hammering hot iron. The cast iron plow enabled farmers to increase their productivity.

Crossbow. A rifle-like stock and trigger were added to an ordinary bow [600]. The new weapon was more powerful than other bows, but took longer to load.

'The Art of War'. A book of military strategy [515, The Art of War by Sun Tzu], helped a weaker state conquer a stronger one [506, Wu defeated Chu]. One of the author's recommendations for winning is 'Know your enemy and know yourself'.

Confucius. Confucius [Kong Qui, 551/479] taught that education and self-discipline help a person make wise decisions and that ritual and etiquette help a person achieve virtue. He encouraged leaders to act with righteousness [doing the right things] and benevolence [treating others fairly]. His teachings later evolved into rigid rules.

Warring States [403]. Military leaders divided the Jin state into three parts without the Zhou king's permission. When the king recognized the three districts [403], he was admitting that he no longer controlled the entire kingdom. Stronger states attacked weaker ones. Iron weapons, the crossbow, and large armies made the wars very destructive. Rulers built walls to protect their borders.

Hundred Schools of Thought. Many ideas and philosophies were proposed during the Warring States period [400, Hundred Schools of Thought].

Moism. Not everyone agreed with Confucian views. Mozi [470/390] taught followers to love everyone equally and to avoid war by making defenses so strong that offense is not practical. Mozi measured an item's value by its usefulness: 'seek food, not music'.

Daoism. Although its founder [Laozi] lived 200 years earlier, Daoism became popular during the warring states period [360]. Dao means 'way' or 'road'. Daoists act in harmony with nature because they believe that the universe is more important than individual human affairs.

Legalism. Legalism held that people are selfish and corrupt and that leaders must use strong laws and firm punishments. The rulers of the Qin, one of the warring states, abandoned Confucianism, and used legalism to increase their power [360].

Qin Rise [356]. The Qin grew stronger after a prime minister [Shang Yang] recommended legalism. The ruler increased his power and weakened rivals. Punishments were severe: farmers were sold as slaves if they failed to meet quotas. Opponents were eliminated. Confucian books were burned because they did not support legalist views [356]. After irrigation programs expanded farm production, the Qin increased the size of their army and conquered rival states [299/221].

Dujiang Waterworks. The Qin built an island that divided a river into two streams. They cut a path through a mountain to permit one of the streams to supply water to farms near the city of Chengdu [256]. The irrigation system also ended flooding and remains in use today. [UNESCO World Heritage site.] A few years later the Qin completed a canal that also increased their food supply [246, Zhengguo Canal].

Qin Empire [221]. The Qin ended the Warring States period by annexing each of the remaining states [230/221]. Having uniting the country, the Qin leader [Yin Zheng] declared himself China's first emperor [Qin Shi Huang]. He kept rivals weak by forcing them to donate their weapons to make bells, by requiring their families to live in his capital city, and by making their provinces smaller. The Qin expanded to the south [214, Nanyue]. The name 'China' comes from 'Qin'.

Linqqu Canal. The Qin emperor wanted to expand southward into the Yue region. Rather than send his army over mountains, the Qin built a canal to transport soldiers and supplies [214, Lingqu Canal]. This is the earliest canal that included water height control. A dam, whose height could be adjusted, kept the proper amount of water in the canal.

Great Wall. In nine years the Qin joined existing walls together to form a 5000 km (3100 mile) to protect farms and cities from raids from the north [210, Great Wall]. The wall has been rebuilt several times and its length has been increased to 7300 km [4500 miles]. If stretched into a straight line, the Great Wall would reach 20% of the distance around the world.

Eternal Army. An army of 8000 life-size statues of warriors guards the Qin emperor's tomb which was built over a 38 year period [246/210]. Each statue has a different face. The statues are made of baked clay [terracotta].

Qin end [210]. The emperor died [210] and his oldest son was tricked into committing suicide. His younger son rose to power and continued to support harsh legalist policies. One law required death if a deadline were missed. 900 people, late because of heavy rains, rebelled instead of accepting death [209]. A larger rebellion led to the defeat of the army [207, Julu], the death of the emperor [206], and a five year war [207/202]. The south broke away [203/111, Nanyue].

Western Han [202]. The Han won the civil war, restored Confucianism, and ruled for 400 years [202/9 CE]. During the civil war the Turkic Xiongnu gained control of northwest China. Han rulers encouraged peace by marrying their daughters to the Xiongnu leaders' sons.

Western Han peak [140]. Early Han emperors appointed friends as governors of provinces. The governors became powerful and rebelled. Emperor Wu [Wudi] ended the rebellions and ruled for 50 years [140/87]. He reduced the power of landowners by requiring that every son inherit an equal share of land. Wu's armies expanded east into Korea [108], south into Nanyue [111], and west into Xiongnu territory [117].

Bureaucracy. The Han governed their large empire by creating a bureaucracy in which the emperor established procedures and required every official to follow them strictly [139].

University. A university helped students become eligible for government jobs [124]. Corruption was reduced because workers were selected by merit and testing. The university emphasized the teachings of Confucius.

Silk Roads. The emperor [Wu] sent diplomats to ask East Iranian Yuezhi to attack the Turkic Xiongnu from the west, while his army attacked from the east. Although the diplomats did not receive Yuezhi military help, they learned about trade opportunities and recommended opening trade routes with the west [108, Silk Roads]. Traders introduced new farm crops and carried diseases from place to place.

Paper. Paper was made by crushing bamboo and bark into fibers and placing them in a tub of water [100 BCE]. A screen, dipped into the liquid, collected a coating of fiber. The coating was peeled away and dried, forming a sheet of paper. New fibers produced thinner, higher quality paper [105 CE, Cai Lun]. Before paper came into use documents were written on long, flat strips of bamboo.

Western Han decline [87]. The Western Han declined when leadership passed to child emperors. Adults served as regents and made political decisions.

Wheelbarrow. Worked used carts that had one wheel [30 BCE]. The earliest Chinese image of a wheelbarrow dates to 118 CE. Europeans used two wheeled chariots and four wheeled wagons. The earliest image of a one-wheel cart in Europe dates to 1220.

Xin [9 CE]. A regent serving for a child emperor took control himself [Wang Mang]. He freed slaves, took land from the rich, and promised it to farmers. The rich became angry because their land was taken away. The farmers became angry because they didn't receive the land. Rebels, who painted their eyebrows red so that they could identify each other in battle, killed the emperor [22, Red Eyebrow Rebellion].

Eastern Han [25]. The Han family regained power, but it took 10 years to restore peace and 70 years to regain lands that were lost.

Buddhism. Missionaries from India introduced Mahayana Buddhism that honored many lesser Buddhas [Bodhisattvas] and emphasized prayer over meditation [65 CE].

Eastern Han decline [184]. Eastern Han rulers had trouble maintaining services as the population increased. Farmers revolted [184, Yellow Turban Rebellion]. The capital was burned [190]. Floods weakened the economy. Outlaws began robbing travelers and stealing from farmers.

Three Kingdoms [220]. A 350 year period of wars [220/565] began when three leaders seized power and fought. The Wei took the north [220/265]. The Wu controlled the southeast [222/280]. The Shu held the southwest [221/263], until they were conquered by the Wei [263].

White Porcelain. Porcelain, the first translucent white pottery [250], was made by using white clay [kaolin] and 'firing' at a higher temperature than had been used to make pottery. Porcelain is stronger, smoother, and more water resistant than pottery.

Western Jin [265]. Members of one family [Sima] gained power by helping several Wei kings, and then seized control [265/316]. The Western Jin expanded, reuniting the country [280]. After the first Jin emperor died [290] family members fought and weakened the kingdom [291/307, War of the Eight Princes].

Sixteen Kingdoms [304]. In the north the War of the Eight Princes left many dead and northern China weak. Mongols, Turks, and Tibetans took control [304/439, Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians]. The wars in the north disrupted trade along the Silk Roads and caused many people to move south.

The Jin moved their capital south after the Xiongnu captured their emperor [316/420, Eastern Jin]. The south had a smaller population than the north.

Mogao Caves. These caves that honor '1000 Buddhas' are located in northwest China at a stopover city along the Silk Roads [366]. When one of the caves was opened in 1910 many scrolls dating from 406 to 1002 were found. They may have been stored in the cave because they had been replaced by printed books. [UNESCO World Heritage site].

Northern and Southern [420]. In the south a government official overthrew the Eastern Jin ruler [420]. Power changed hands five times in 170 years [420/589].

In the north the Mongol Xianbei [Tuoba Wei] ruled as an upper class with native Chinese as a lower class [386/534, Northern Wei]. A Northern Wei emperor whose mother was Chinese [493, Xiaowen] encouraged his followers to adopt the Chinese language, clothing, and customs. The northerners retained their Buddhist beliefs. Southerners favored Confucianist and Daoist traditions, but began to accept Buddhism. The emperor moved the capital south and relocated large numbers of people to the new capital.

Yungang Caves. These 'Cloud Ridge' caves have 252 rooms with more than 50,000 Buddha figures [460]. They are located in northwest China near a pass in the Great Wall that controlled traffic between China and Mongolia. [UNESCO World Heritage site].

Longmen Caves. These 'Dragon's Gate' caves, located near the Northern Wei capital, contain 100,000 Buddhist figures and images. About 800 caves were dug during the Northern Wei era [493]. Another 1500 were added later. [UNESCO World Heritage site].

Northern and Southern end [534]. Rebellions began in the Mongol north because the ruler had adopted Chinese customs [523]. Two generals split the kingdom [534, Eastern and Western Wei]. The Zhou seized power in the west [557] and then reunited the north by conquering the east [577].

Sui [581]. During a mutiny of soldiers a military general [Yang Jian, 'Emperor Wen'] seized the Wei throne [581/618, Sui Dynasty]. He reunited China by conquering the south [589]. His successor [604] forced large numbers of people to dig the Grand Canal [605/610] and rebuild the Great Wall. His armies expanded south into Annam [605], but suffered a devastating loss in Koguryo [614].

Gunpowder. Gunpowder was discovered about the year 600 by alchemists. The earliest use of gunpowder was to produce loud sounds which were popular in festivals.

Grand Canal. A six year Grand Canal project [605/610] increased the length of existing canals to 1800 km [1100 mi]. The Grand Canal connected the north and south, making it easier to bring grain to the capital. It remains in use today.

Tang begin [618]. Army generals, angry because so many soldiers died in Koguryo [614], overthrew the government and formed the Tang dynasty [618/907]. Early Tang rulers expanded west into Afghanistan [659/665] and east into Koguryo [668/676], but were unable to maintain control over these regions.

Zhou Empress [690]. An emperor's mistress [Empress Wu] took power [690/704, Zhou]. She was China's only female emperor.

Tang peak [704]. A coup [704] ended the reign of 80 year old Empress Wu and restored a ruler who had been deposed 15 years earlier. A successor [712/756, Xuanzong also known as Ming] ruled for 44 years, a period of prosperity [Kaiyuan era]. He expanded west [720], founded an Academy of Letters [725], improved farm irrigation, and promoted education, art, and music. His success was due to strong central control, educated workers, and bureaucratic procedures for governmental administration.

Ch'an Buddhism. Ch'an, a new branch of Buddhism, emphasized that each person should look for the value in their own life by meditating [710]. Rituals and reading sacred texts were judged to be less important than meditation. Ch'an Buddhism declined in China, but it flourished later in Japan, where it is known as Zen Buddhism.

Celadon. High quality porcelain with a distinctive olive-green color [celadon] was prized by the ruling class [725]. The porcelain was produced in the Yue region [Yue-ware] and the coloring techniques were kept secret.

Block printing. Scrolls were printed on paper using wood blocks [725]. An entire page was carved on one block.

Tang decline [751]. The Tang emperor [Xuanzong] fell in love with his son's wife and lost interest in governing the country. The Muslim Abbasids took China's western land [751, Talas]. A provincial governor [An Lushan], accused of treason because he built himself a castle, rebelled [756] and forced the emperor to flee west to Chengdu [756]. The rebel leader was assassinated [757], but none of his followers emerged as a successor.

Tang end [820]. Eunuchs serving as aides to the emperor had two emperors killed and survived a plot to kill them [835, Event of Dew]. Floods, famine, and high taxes caused suffering. A 10 year rebellion [874/884] drained resources.

Gunpowder Bombs. The first military use of gunpowder was bombs that were launched by catapults [850].

Five Dynasties [907]. A military general ended Tang rule by placing a child in power [904] and then naming himself emperor [907]. The emperor's son left the country because he did not want to be its ruler. Five dynasties ruled the north one after another. Governors, who were in charge their province's army, divided the south into 10 side-by-side kingdoms. Wars and conflicts weakened both the north and the south.

Northern Song [960]. The Northern Song took power [960], conquered the remaining southern kingdoms, but failed to defeat the Mongol Liao Dynasty in the north. They paid an annual tribute to the Liao to maintain peace. The Northern Song [960/1127] restored strong central control and bureaucratic operation of the government.

Copies for students permitted [non-commercial use]. Please email corrections, additions: suggestions@atlasofworldhistory.com.